Zooarchaeological Analysis of the Wren Yard Site, College of William and Mary

Gregory J. Brown

May 28, 2000

Colonial Williamsburg Foundation Library Research Report Series - 1687
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation Library

Williamsburg, Virginia

2000

Zooarchaeological Analysis of the Wren Yard Site, College of William & Mary

Report submitted to:
Center for Archaeological Research
College of William & Mary
Williamsburg, VA 23186
Submitted by:
Gregory J. Brown
1841 Ferrell Drive
Williamsburg, VA 23185

May 28, 2000

Introduction

This report describes the analysis of about 2500 animal bones from the Wren Yard site on the campus of the College of William & Mary. It was excavated by the William & Mary Center for Archaeological Research (WMCAR) in 2000 under the direction of staff archaeologist Thomas Higgins.

Some 2485 bones from the site were analyzed. Four hundred fifty-eight (18.4%) were identifiable to the taxonomic level of Order. The identified elements were recovered from 75 contexts from 12 features, 9 test units, and 32 shovel pits (Higgins, personal communication, 2000; Table 1). The remains were divided by WMCAR into three "periods": 18th century contexts, made up of 17 contexts from two features and the lower levels of eight test units; 19th century contexts, made up of 14 contexts from six features and levels III and IV of five test units; and 20th century contexts, made up of 12 contexts from four features and the upper two levels of five test units. The faunal remains were identified using the collections of Joanne Bowen at Colonial Williamsburg's Zooarchaeology Laboratory. For a complete breakdown of identifiable and unidentifiable elements by context, see Appendix A.

18th Century Contexts

The 18th-century contexts are dominated by cow (51.2% of the total biomass), with pig a distant second at 10.1% (see Table 5 later in this report). Only 17% of the 591 bones were identifiable, and the only remains outside of domestic livestock were a single dog bone, a fragment of deer, and a few unidentifiable fragments of reptile and bird.

19th Century Contexts

The 19th-century contexts were the largest grouping, with 1186 elements (247, or 21%, identifiable). Again cow was the largest contributor with 47.5% of the total biomass, followed by pig with 13.3%. A wide variety of taxa were found, including six fish bones (one of them the scute, or bony plate, from a sturgeon), one turtle, 15 bird or possible bird (one of them from a turkey), and fragments of a muskrat and a dog.

20th Century Contexts

The 20th-century contexts included only 129 bones, just 15 of them identifiable. Eleven of the 15 came from pig, three from cow (one of them a calf), and one from a cottontail rabbit. The vast majority of the unidentifiable bone was from medium-sized mammal, most likely pig.

3
Table 1.
Distribution of NISP by Feature and Level
IdentifiableUnidentifiableTotal Bones
Feature/LevelBagNISPWgt(g)NISPWgt(g)NISPWgt(g)
18th Century
Feature 1594113.7716.0829.7
Feature 189815.112.327.4
Test Unit 1 Level V6000.01410.01410.0
Test Unit 1 Level Va61333.12215.22548.3
Test Unit 2 Level IV481276.64858.160134.7
Test Unit 2 Level V47793.62245.129138.7
Test Unit 3 Level V578143.82220.830164.6
Test Unit 5 Level V74140.964.1745.0
Test Unit 5 Level VI7526.174.2910.3
Test Unit 6 Level III7722224.7170187.4192412.1
Test Unit 6 Level IV78210.41012.61223.0
Test Unit 7 Level III8727397.677107.8104505.4
Test Unit 7 Level IV88210.02219.72429.7
Test Unit 8 Level III8910188.34640.156228.4
Test Unit 8 Level IV9000.026.026.0
Test Unit 9 Level III84116.11525.91642.0
Test Unit 9 Level IV8514.100.014.1
19th Century
Feature 763123.220.9324.1
Feature 86400.01110.11110.1
Feature 10766111.72420.730132.4
Feature 208200.010.510.5
Feature 218334.343.077.3
Feature 229300.0811.5811.5
Test Unit 1 Level III4423174.3200229.0223403.3
Test Unit 1 Level IV5016204.4139125.0155329.4
Test Unit 2 Level III41111758.2295397.64061155.8
Test Unit 3 Level III5338420.26972.7107492.9
Test Unit 3 Level IV5619141.98990.2108232.1
Test Unit 4 Level IV6910.900.010.9
Test Unit 5 Level III72932.741.91334.6
Test Unit 5 Level IV7120382.993129.2113512.1
20th Century
Feature 45400.058.958.9
Feature 55500.01522.61522.6
Feature 124535.11834.62139.7
Feature 144917.3410.1517.4
Test Unit 1 Level I4200.02118.32118.3
Test Unit 1 Level II4320.82720.22921.0
Test Unit 2 Level I4600.020.720.7
Test Unit 2 Level II40111.841.9513.7
Test Unit 3 Level I5200.011.311.3
Test Unit 3 Level II51622.9716.81339.7
4
Test Unit 4 Level II6500.032.632.6
Test Unit 5 Level II7322.3715.2917.5
Other
Shovel Test 2200.010.410.4
Shovel Test 4600.058.358.3
Shovel Test 5712.262.774.9
Shovel Test 6800.011.611.6
Shovel Test 73240.31530.51770.8
Shovel Test 8900.021.821.8
Shovel Test 91014.4520.0624.4
Shovel Test 101100.01030.81030.8
Shovel Test 121215.110.725.8
Shovel Test 13400.034.834.8
Shovel Test 1414658.41915.52573.9
Shovel Test 1515220.344.5624.8
Shovel Test 162510.384.494.7
Shovel Test 195977.03946.448123.4
Shovel Test 2023213.11321.01534.1
Shovel Test 2117111.81012.71124.5
Shovel Test 231900.010.310.3
Shovel Test 252200.01615.11615.1
Shovel Test 262100.045.745.7
Shovel Test 292736.21825.32131.5
Shovel Test 3030210.511.1311.6
Shovel Test 3122.555.878.3
Shovel Test 3326112.8716.0828.8
Shovel Test 3433225.71838.72064.4
Shovel Test 353500.069.469.4
Shovel Test 363638349.0148183.8186532.8
Shovel Test 373400.024.124.1
Shovel Test 383700.01117.61117.6
Shovel Test 393900.031.431.4
Shovel Test 4199585.82618.131103.9
Shovel Test 42100767.05251.959118.9
Shovel Test 44102970.71742.126112.8
No provenience—11.965.177.0
5

Zooarchaeological Analysis

The remainder of this report will describe methodology, the habitat and preferences of the animals represented, and details about dietary importance measurements, element distributions, kill-off patterns, etc.

Methods

Following standard practice of Colonial Williamsburg's Zooarchaeology Lab, all bone from the site, regardless of context, was sorted into "identifiable" and "unidentifiable" components. The unidentifiable bone—that which could not be taken at least to the taxonomic level of Order—was divided by class (mammal, bird, fish, etc.) and element type (long bone, flat bone, rib, etc.). Each subgrouping for each context was weighed and counted.

The identifiable bone was compared with an existing skeletal collection created and maintained by Joanne Bowen of the Colonial Williamsburg Department of Archaeological Research. Using morphological characteristics, each element was identified to the lowest taxonomic level possible. The taxon, element, symmetry (side), location, and weight of the element were entered into a custom-designed microcomputer program written for Microsoft's FoxPro, along with data regarding possible weathering, burning, carnivore or rodent chewing, and butchering. Each bone is tracked in the computer program using a so-called "unique bone number." Because of the small size of the collection, it was not necessary to write this "UB" number on the bone itself.

Once identification was completed, the bone was physically laid out for minimum number of individuals (MNI) determination. MNI figures (see below) were calculated by pairing comparable rights and lefts, taking into account size, fusion state, tooth eruption, and general morphology.

Analytic Techniques

Zooarchaeologists use several techniques in order to estimate the dietary importance of various species. The most basic involves a simple count of the total number of elements, often called NISP or "number of identified specimens." This method is still often used, although it has several shortcomings, most notably its failure to account for element interdependence, differential preservation, variability in the identifiability of certain elements, and differences in collection techniques (Grayson 1984).

The most important alternative to the NISP method is the so-called "minimum number of individuals" (MNI) method. The MNI is calculated by taking the most common unique element (for example, the left humerus) for each individual taxon—thus providing an estimation of the smallest number of live animals that could have accounted for the recovered bone. Because each individual is counted only once, it overcomes the most important objection to the NISP method—element interdependence—and provides a conservative estimate of relative importance. The counts are 6 made more accurate by carefully matching rights and lefts and by using age and sex indicators as well.

Grayson (1984), however, has shown that the MNI method is also seriously flawed, since the values are dependent not only on the thoroughness of the analyst but also on the units of aggregation and the sample size. Particularly for small samples, it tends to overinflate the importance of less common species and thus provides a skewed picture of their true dietary significance.

An outgrowth of the MNI method is the calculation of usable meat weight. First developed in paleontology by Theodore White (1953), the meat weight method involves multiplying each MNI value by a factor which represents the average meat weight for that taxon. Values often used locally are those included in Henry Miller's very influential dissertation Colonization and Subsistence Change on the 17th-Century Chesapeake Frontier (1984). Unfortunately, however, meat weight values (as Miller to his credit recognized many years ago) are usually only determinable for modern animals, which have undergone specialized breeding and may resemble only slightly their ancestors. The method also fails to account for size variation amongst the animals in a single assemblage, using a single "average" meat weight as a multiplying factor. Finally, since it is directly dependent on MNI, the meat weight method suffers from all of the statistical problems of the MNI method, including units of aggregation and sample size.

Another increasingly more common method relies on meat weight figures based on the weight of the bone itself. Called the "skeletal mass allometry" or "biomass" method (Reitz and Cordier 1983), it rests on the basic principle of allometry—that any two dimensions of an animal grow in a relatively-predictable exponential curve, and thus one can construct an equation that relates the two. The method has used with greatest success by Elizabeth Reitz from the University of Georgia, one of the foremost historic-period zooarchaeologists (see Reitz 1979; Reitz and Cordier 1983; Reitz and Honerkamp 1983; Reitz and Scarry 1985).

Many analysts have also used the distribution of particular elements to suggest important conclusions regarding taphonomy and/or butchering practices (e.g., Maltby 1979). Detailed studies of the location, orientation, and depth of butchering marks and carnivore or rodent chewing, beyond the scope of this analysis, are another method of investigating food preparation and disposal.

Animal husbandry is revealed by so-called "kill-off" patterns, based on epiphyseal fusion of (mostly) mammal long bones (Chaplin 1971; Payne 1973; Bowen 1989). Since the time of epiphyseal fusion is generally relatively constant within a species, an age distribution can be constructed for the identified animals (and by extension for the herds from which they came).

Environment is generally suggested by the diversity and relative abundance of certain wild taxa, particularly those with narrow ranges of ecological tolerance. In many cases seasonality can be revealed as well by looking at the presence and abundance of migratory species, such as waterfowl, as well as age patterns of domestic animals.

7

Bone Recovery

On this site, soil was screened through one-quarter-inch mesh, and it appears that even very small and fragile bone was collected. This is largely standard technique on historic-period Virginia sites, although there are many sites that are not screened at all. It has been shown (Thomas 1969) that screening has an enormous positive influence on the recovery of bone and particularly in the recovery of smaller or more fragile species.

There is little evidence on the recovered bone of major carnivore or rodent chewing, and almost no significant weathering was noted. Very little bone was burned.

Description of Identified Taxa

At least eleven taxa were identified in the assemblage (Table 2). A brief description of each identified taxon is given below.

Table 2.
Identified Taxa
Taxonomic NameCommon Name18th C19th C20th C
FISH
Class OsteichthyesBony Fish—x—
Acipenser spp.Sturgeon—x—
REPTILES
Class ReptiliaReptilex——
Order TestudinesTurtle—x—
BIRDS
Class AvesBirdxx—
Class Aves/Mammalia IIIBird/Small Mammal——x
Goose spp.Goose———
Meleagris gallopavoTurkey—x—
Family CorvidaeRaven or Crow———
MAMMALS
Class MammaliaMammalxxx
Class Mammalia ILarge Mammalxxx
Class Mammalia IIMedium Mammalxxx
Class Mammalia IIISmall Mammal———
Sylvilagus floridanusEastern Cottontail——x
Ondatra zibethicaMuskrat—x—
Canis familiarisDogxx—
Order Artiodactyla ISheep, Goat, Deer, or Pigxx—
Sus scrofaDomestic Pigxxx
Odocoileus virginianusWhite-Tailed Deerx——
Bos taurusDomestic Cowxxx
Ovis aries/Capra hircusDomestic Sheep or Goatxx—
8
Fish

Only a relatively few fish were found in any of the assemblages, and all of those that were datable came from the 19th-century contexts. Only one species was identifiable, that one the sturgeon (Acipenser spp.).

An ancient fish that was once plentiful in the Chesapeake Bay, the sturgeon is anadromous, ascending rivers to spawn in fresh or brackish waters. Very long-lived, it matures at 12-22 years of age and may live as long as 75 years (McClane 1965:185). A mature Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrhynchus) may weigh in excess of 100 pounds (Miller 1984); the smaller shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum), now very rare in the Chesapeake Bay, weighs considerably less (Lippson and Lippson 1984:197). Both fish were common until the early twentieth century, when commercial fishing almost eradicated them (Lippson and Lippson 1984:196-197). In the eighteenth and early nineteenth century, sturgeon were smoked and their black roe made into caviar. They were also a source of isinglass, a natural gelatin made from their air bladders (Herald 1972.:56). They are also easily identifiable archaeologically, as they are covered with hard bony "scutes" which preserve extremely well.

Reptiles

A small number of reptile bones were found in the 18th- and 19th-century contexts. Only one could be identified even to order, this one being a fragment of a turtle. Turtles were (and remain) common in Virginia. Several species are found in Virginia, including the snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina), the sliders and cooters (Chrysemys spp.), diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin), and box turtle (Terrapene carolina) (Behler and King 1979; Conant 1975; Ernst and Barbour 1972).

Birds

Only a very few species of birds were found in the assemblage, and only three species were represented: goose, turkey, and raven or crow.

A single goose tibiotarsus fragment was found in Shovel Test 19. The fragment is not well dated, but it is very possible that it dates to the 18th or 19th century, as both domestic and wild geese were commonly eaten in the colonial and post-colonial period.

The turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) was first domesticated by the Indians of Southwestern and Central America, and was brought to Europe around 1523 or 1524 (Zeuner 1963:459). The single turkey fragment on the site was a phalange from Test Unit 2, level III (a 19th-century context). Wild turkeys still abounded in the Chesapeake when Europeans arrived; domesticated birds were commonly kept by the early eighteenth century, but their susceptibility to disease made domestication difficult (Reitz 1979). There is no skeletal difference between the wild and domestic turkey, and in fact they were "indistinguishable in habits or taste" (Pryor n.d.:12). Even wild turkeys were found around barnyards and it is quite likely that even in the eighteenth century some turkeys were at least semi-wild. In the wild, they prefer wooded swamps and open hardwood forests 9 (Johnsgard 1975:12). Turkeys kept on farms and plantations tended to be confined in poultry yards if there were fears of predation or escape.

A single ulna fragment from Shovel Test 44 appears to have come from a crow or raven. The common crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) is a frequent sight today, due to its easy adaptability to a wide range of habitats. It nests and roosts in open forest and woodlands and forages in open and partly open country, including agricultural lands, urban areas, orchards, and tidal flats. This fragment is not datable to period, but crows have been around this part of Virginia for centuries.

Wild Mammals

A single metapodial from what appears to be an Eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) was found in a 20th-century context in Test Unit 1, level II. Cottontails are widely distributed across the United States and southern Canada. They prefer a vegetative habitat of perennial grasses or a dense, low growing environment. They are herbivores, preferring grasses and a wide variety of plants which provide a basic nutritional balance (Chapman et al. 1982).

The right femur from a muskrat (Ondatra zibethica) was found in Test Unit 3, level III. It is a stocky rodent that lives on the edges of ponds, lakes, and streams (Burt and Grossenheider 1964; Perry 1982). Chiefly aquatic, it builds its house in shallow water. It has long been valuable for its fur as well as its meat.

A single calcaneus (foot bone) from a white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) was found in a 19th-century context in Test Unit 8, level III. The white-tailed deer inhabits most environmental settings and consumes a diversity of foods, selecting the most nutritional and tasty foods available. Its activity within a region depends on a number of factors, including population size, season of the year, and weather conditions (Hesselton and Hesselton 1982). During the early colonial period they were quite prevalent, and large numbers of deer remains are found on the earliest historic sites.

Beginning in the mid-seventeenth century, deer populations declined, as evidenced by the decreasing number of bones found on archaeological sites from this time period (Miller 1984). A combination of factors brought the decline of the deer. As land was developed into plantations and farms, the deer's habitat became more circumscribed. Because the huge influx of settlers looked to the deer for sustenance, and to a lesser degree, for sport, the deer population was hunted, and greatly depleted. How quickly deer populations declined depended greatly on how quickly an area was built up, and the resulting human population Generally, the decline was felt throughout the region by the late eighteenth century. The diminished deer population, coupled with the increasing utilization of pig and cow, greatly curtailed the presence of deer in the diet. But it remained a prized game animal, as it remains today—when in the late 1940s it was estimated that there were about 7 million deer nationally, and there were 2 million legal kills (and up to 1 million illegal ones) in 1978 (Hesselton and Hesselton 1982).

10
Commensals

Two domestic dog elements were found: one a radius fragment from Test Unit 8, level III, and the other a canine tooth from Feature 10. The domestic dog (Canis familiaris) was a common pet in eighteenth and nineteenth-century Virginia.

Domestic Mammals

The domestic pig (Sus scrofa) was represented by 208 elements from all three periods. Swine were kept throughout the South and have over the years become almost a symbol of Southern foodways. But at first they were kept simply because they were so easy to care for, requiring little watchfulness and an unspecialized diet (Reitz 1979). They were often allowed to run free in the woods. The animals were kept principally on outlying plantations and farms, and by the late eighteenth century town-dwellers who did not raise their own could buy pork at the town market. Because pigs would yield 65-80% of their weight as dressed meat, as opposed to 50-60% for cattle and 45-55% for sheep, raising them was a profitable commercial enterprise (Reitz 1979:78). Virtually all plantation owners kept hogs, and virtually every part of the slaughtered animal was eventually utilized.

Pork was eaten often during the eighteenth century. The English traveler Nicholas Cresswell, in 1774, remarked that he "had eaten Bacon or Chicken every meal since I came in to the Country. If I still continue in this way shall be grown over with Bristles or Feathers" (McVeagh 1924:20). In fact, it has been generally claimed that pork was the primary meat of the South (Bidwell and Falconer 1925), though this conclusion has recently been questioned on the basis of archaeological evidence suggesting that beef was actually much more important (Bowen 1986; Noël Hume 1978). In any case, the animals were killed during the late fall or winter, and excess meat was ordinarily smoked, salted, pickled, or potted.

The domestic cow (Bos taurus) was represented by 184 elements, only 8 of which were from calves. It was almost universally raised on plantations, and some urban-dwellers kept a cow or two on their lots to provide them with milk, butter, and cheese. Unlike pork, beef did not preserve particularly well, and salt beef was never as important as salt pork (Price and Schweigert 1971; Bowen 1989). Thus it is likely that most of the beef eaten by urban-dwellers was purchased from farmers or at the town market, usually as quarters or smaller sections. Butchers would often purchase entire animals from plantation owners, slaughtering and cutting them up for later sale at market.

Cattle varied widely in size, showing a rapid evolutionary growth as farm owners improved their breeds. Reitz (1979:80) indicates that in 1710 a beef cow in England weighed around 167 kilograms (368 pounds), while in 1795 the average weight had risen to 362 kilograms (798 pounds).

Sheep or goats were represented by 47 elements, most from the 18th- and 19th-century contexts. Sheep (Ovis aries) were commonly raised on eighteenth- and nineteenth-century plantations and farms, although they never became really profitable since they were unable to defend themselves from predators and would not freely reproduce (Gray 1958; Reitz 1979). Goats (Capra hircus) were 11 occasionally raised, though primarily for their milk rather than their meat (Noël Hume 1978:20). Neither was a primary food source, and their importance pales in comparison with pigs and cattle.

Because of their skeletal similarity, most faunal analysts tend to lump the two species as "sheep/goat" (or "caprine"). It is likely, however, that most of the remains found in the assemblage represent the much-more-commonly-raised sheep.

Relative Dietary Importance

Figure 1 shows the relative dietary importance of each taxon based on each of the four main quantification methods. It is important to note that these are relative measures—in other words, that the point to be understood is the rank order of the species, not that the ratio of pig to chicken bones, for instance, reflects anything absolute about the amount of meat provided.

As stated earlier, it appears that pig was one of the most significant meat animals in both periods, rivaling cow for supremacy in the first. The enormous number of individual pig elements in Period 1 is largely accounted for by the presence of many immature elements from Feature 9, where a large portion of each animal was preserved. Although only one deer bone was found, a deer would supply a large amount of meat; on the other hand, the presence of seventeen chicken elements, from at least four individual animals, suggests that chicken was eaten regularly, even if the total amount of meat appears very small.

There is very little diversity in the assemblage relative to some others, but this is almost certainly a result of the small sample. It is interesting that no fish or turtle remains were found

Butchering Practices

No attempt was made to quantitatively or qualitatively assess butchering, although a large percentage of butchered bones were noted at least in the "adult" animals. Virtually all butchered bones were hacked, probably using an axe or large cleaver, resulting in irregular fractures as well as shallow-to-deep V-shaped cuts. Those bones that were butchered most consisted of, not surprisingly, the major meat-bearing elements. Upper leg bones were often broken into several pieces; vertebrae were commonly split longitudinally through what would have been the midline of the body. Butchering marks were noted most often on cattle and pig bones, and less on those of sheep/goat.

12

RR168701 Figure 1. Dietary Contribution

Recovery Rates

It appears that the rate of faunal recovery was fairly good. Table 3 shows that elements from virtually every part of the body were collected for the major food animals. It is interesting, however, that while body parts are disproportionately represented for cow (with 66.7%, 86.3%, and 50% of the total number of elements, respectively), the pig data shows an overwhelming preponderance of head elements (58.3%, 71.5%, and 72.7%). The vast majority of these are the easily identified (and very durable) teeth, suggesting perhaps a preservation problem with the smaller (non-cow) animals. Of course, it could also represent a dietary preference for pig head elements, a fashion that was common in 18th- and 19th-century Virginia.

Animal Husbandry

Often zooarchaeologists attempt to study animal husbandry by looking at the age distribution (so-called "kill-off pattern") of the assemblage. In this case all of the samples are very small. For more synthetic studies, though, the raw data is presented in Appendix B.

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Table 3.
Wren Yard
Element Distribution
CowCalfPigSheep/Goat
No.%Normal %No.%Normal %No.%Normal %No.%Normal %
18th Century Contexts
Head1324.129.7125.029.7758.328.200.029.7
Body3666.742.2250.042.2541.734.500.042.2
Feet59.328.1125.028.100.037.300.028.1
TOTAL54100.0100.04100.0100.012100.0100.000.0100.0
19th Century Contexts
Head910.729.72100.029.79371.528.2523.829.7
Body7086.342.200.042.22418.534.51257.142.2
Feet56.028.100.028.11310.037.3419.028.1
TOTAL84100.0100.02100.0100.047100.0100.0210.0100.0
20th Century Contexts
Head150.029.700.029.7872.728.200.029.7
Body150.042.21100.042.2327.334.500.042.2
Feet00.028.100.028.100.037.300.028.1
TOTAL2100.0100.01100.0100.011100.0100.000.0100.0

Conclusion

The faunal remains from the Wren Yard are typical of 18th to 19th-century Virginia sites, with a strong reliance on cattle and swine. There is a notable lack of variety in the assemblages, and it is very likely that the lack of wild birds and mammals (and even common domestic birds such as chicken) is the result of the use of the local market rather than individual procurement (that is, individual hunting). Such a pattern would compare well with similarly-excavated sites in Williamsburg, where it appears that the town market supplied a good deal of the urban dwellers needs.

14
Table 4.
Wren Yard, Entire Site
Summary of Faunal Remains
NISPMNIMeatWeightBiomass
No.Pct.MNIPct.Lbs.Pct.KgPct.
Class Osteichthyes (Bony Fish)140.6———————0.100.1
Acipenser spp. (Sturgeon)1<0.1———————0.100.1
Class Reptilia (Reptile)80.3———————0.00<0.1
Order Testudines (Turtle)40.2———————0.110.1
Class Aves (Bird)170.7———————0.100.1
Class Aves/Mammalia III (Bird/Small Mammal)70.3———————0.04<0.1
Goose spp. (Goose)1<0.1———————0.04<0.1
Meleagris gallopavo (Turkey)1<0.1———————0.01<0.1
Family Corvidae (Ravens and Crows)1<0.1———————0.01<0.1
Class Mammalia (Mammal)1335.4———————0.670.8
Class Mammalia I (Large Mammal)2168.7———————10.1711.7
Class Mammalia II (Medium Mammal)162765.5———————20.8624.0
Class Mammalia III (Small Mammal)50.2———————0.050.1
cf. Sylvilagus floridanus(Eastern Cottontail)10.0———————<0.01<0.1
Ondatra zibethica(Muskrat)10.0———————0.060.1
Canis familiaris(Dog)20.1———————0.140.2
Order Artiodactyla I (Sheep, Goat, Deer, or Pig)60.2———————0.170.2
Sus scrofa(Domestic Pig)2078.3———————10.9412.6
cf. Sus scrofa(Domestic Pig)1<0.1———————0.050.1
Odocoileus virginianus(White-Tailed Deer)1<0.1———————0.230.3
Bos taurus(Domestic Cow)1737.0———————38.4244.2
cf. Bos taurus(Domestic Cow)30.1———————0.310.4
Bos taurus(Calf) (Domestic Cow (Calf))80.3———————0.790.9
Ovis aries/Capra hircus(Domestic Sheep or Goat)461.9———————3.574.1
cf. Ovis aries/Capra hircus(Domestic Sheep or Goat)1<0.1———————0.060.1
Fish150.6———————0.200.2
Reptiles/Amphibians120.5———————0.110.1
Wild Birds1<0.1———————0.01<0.1
Wild Mammals20.1———————0.230.3
Domestic Birds1<0.1———————0.01<0.1
Domestic Mammals43917.7———————54.1462.2
Commensals30.1———————0.200.2
Wild301.2———————0.550.6
Domestic44017.7———————54.1562.3
Identified45818.4———————55.0063.2
Unidentified202781.6———————31.9736.8
Totals2485100.0———————86.97100.0
15
Table 5.
Wren Yard, 18th Century Contexts
Summary of Faunal Remains
NISPMNIMeatWeightBiomass
No.Pct.MNIaPct.Lbs.Pct.KgPct.
Class Reptilia (Reptile)40.719.1————0.000.0
Class Aves (Bird)61.019.1————0.050.2
Class Mammalia (Mammal)284.7———————0.160.6
Class Mammalia I (Large Mammal)478.0———————2.579.8
Class Mammalia II (Medium Mammal)40668.7———————5.7822.1
Canis familiaris(Dog)10.219.115.01.20.090.3
Order Artiodactyla I (Sheep, Goat, Deer, or Pig)10.2———————0.040.2
Sus scrofa(Domestic Pig)274.62/127.3250.020.02.6410.1
Odocoileus virginianus(White-Tailed Deer)10.219.1100.08.00.230.9
Bos taurus(Domestic Cow)539.0218.2800.064.013.2850.7
cf. Bos taurus(Domestic Cow)10.2———————0.130.5
Bos taurus(Calf) (Domestic Cow (Calf))40.70/19.150.04.00.501.9
Ovis aries/Capra hircus(Domestic Sheep or Goat)122.019.135.02.80.722.8
Fish00.0———————0.000.0
Reptiles/Amphibians40.719.1————0.000.0
Wild Birds00.0———————0.000.0
Wild Mammals10.219.1100.08.00.230.9
Domestic Birds00.0———————0.000.0
Domestic Mammals9716.45/263.61135.090.817.2866.0
Commensals10.219.115.01.20.090.3
Wild50.8218.2100.08.00.230.9
Domestic9716.45/263.61135.090.817.2866.0
Identified10016.98/290.91250.0100.017.6367.3
Unidentified49183.119.1————8.5632.7
Totals591100.09/2100.01250.0 100.026.19100.0
16
Table 6.
Wren Yard, 19th Century Contexts
Summary of Faunal Remains
NISPMNIMeatWeightBiomass
No.Pct.MNIaPct.Lbs.Pct.KgPct.
Class Osteichthyes (Bony Fish)50.4———————0.050.1
Acipenser spp. (Sturgeon)10.117.1100.07.20.100.2
Order Testudines (Turtle)10.117.11.00.10.02<0.1
Class Aves (Bird)80.7———————0.040.1
Class Aves/Mammalia III (Bird/Small Mammal)60.5———————0.030.1
Meleagris gallopavo (Turkey)10.117.17.50.50.01<0.1
Class Mammalia (Mammal)837.0———————0.431.0
Class Mammalia I (Large Mammal)1149.6———————5.0411.2
Class Mammalia II (Medium Mammal)72361.0———————9.8221.8
Ondatra zibethica(Muskrat)10.117.12.00.10.060.1
Canis familiaris(Dog)10.117.115.01.10.060.1
Order Artiodactyla I (Sheep, Goat, Deer, or Pig)50.4———————0.140.3
Sus scrofa(Domestic Pig)12910.93/128.6350.025.15.9513.2
cf. Sus scrofa(Domestic Pig)10.1———————0.050.1
Bos taurus(Domestic Cow)847.1214.3800.057.321.3547.4
Bos taurus(Calf) (Domestic Cow (Calf))20.20/17.150.03.60.030.1
Ovis aries/Capra hircus(Domestic Sheep or Goat)211.8214.370.05.01.874.1
Fish60.517.1100.07.20.150.3
Reptiles/Amphibians10.117.11.00.10.02<0.1
Wild Birds00.0———————0.000.0
Wild Mammals00.0———————0.000.0
Domestic Birds10.117.17.50.50.01<0.1
Domestic Mammals23720.07/264.31270.091.029.2464.9
Commensals20.2214.317.01.20.120.3
Wild70.6214.3101.07.20.180.4
Domestic23820.18/271.41277.591.529.2564.9
Identified24720.812/2100.01395.5100.029.6365.8
Unidentified93979.2———————15.4134.2
Totals1186100.012/2100.01395.5100.045.04100.0
17
Table 7.
Wren Yard, 20th Century Contexts
Summary of Faunal Remains
NISPMNIMeatWeightBiomass
No.Pct.MNIaPct.Lbs.Pct.KgPct.
Class Aves/Mammalia III (Bird/Small Mammal)10.8———————0.010.3
Class Mammalia (Mammal)32.3———————0.010.4
Class Mammalia I (Large Mammal)107.8———————0.8724.2
Class Mammalia II (Medium Mammal)10077.5———————1.7247.9
cf. Sylvilagus floridanus(Eastern Cottontail)10.8125.02.00.40.000.1
Sus scrofa(Domestic Pig)118.5125.0100.018.10.6217.3
Bos taurus(Domestic Cow)21.6125.0400.072.50.205.5
Bos taurus(Calf) (Domestic Cow (Calf))10.80/125.050.09.10.164.4
Fish00.0———————0.000.0
Reptiles/Amphibians00.0———————0.000.0
Wild Birds00.0———————0.000.0
Wild Mammals10.8125.02.00.4<0.010.1
Domestic Birds00.0———————0.000.0
Domestic Mammals1410.92/175.0550.099.60.9727.2
Commensals00.0———————0.000.0
Wild10.8125.02.00.40.000.1
Domestic1410.92/175.0550.099.60.9727.2
Identified1511.63/1100.0552.0100.00.9827.3
Unidentified11488.4———————2.6172.7
Totals129100.03/1100.0552.0100.03.58100.0

Footnotes

^a "2/2" means 2 adult, 2 immature.
18

References

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1979
Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
Bidwell, Percy W., and John L. Falconer
1925
History of Agriculture in the United States 1620-1860. Reprinted 1941, Peter Smith, New York.
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1989
A Comparative Analysis of the New England and Chesapeake Herding Systems: The Relative Dietary Importance of Beef and Dairy Products. Paper presented at the 22nd annual meeting of the Society for Historical Archaeology, Baltimore.
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1982
Cottontails, Sylvilagus floridanus and Allies. In Wild Mammals of North America, edited by Joseph A. Chapman and George A. Feldhamer, pp. 83-123. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
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1971
The Study of Animal Bones from Archaeological Sites. Seminar Press, New York.
Conant, Roger
1975
A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
Ernst, Carl H., and Roger W. Barbour
1972
Turtles of the United States. The University Press of Kentucky, Lexington.
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1958
History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication No. 430. Carnegie Institution, Washington, DC.
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1984
Quantitative Zooarchaeology: Topics in the Analysis of Archaeological Faunas. Academic Press, Orlando.
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1972
Fishes of North America. Doubleday & Company, New York.
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1982
"White-tail Deer (Odocoileus virginianus)." In Wild Mammals of North America, edited by Joseph Chapman and George Feldhamer, pp. 878-901. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 19
Lippson, Alice Jane, and Robert L. Lippson
1984
Life in the Chesapeake Bay. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
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1924
The Journal of Nicholas Cresswell, 1774-1777. The Dial Press, New York.
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1979
The Animal Bones from Exeter, 1971-1975. Exeter Archaeological Reports, Volume 2. Department of Prehistory and Archaeology, University of Sheffield.
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1984
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Food. Colonial Williamsburg Archaeological Series No. 9. The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg.
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1973
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1971
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n.d.
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Spanish and British Subsistence Strategies at St. Augustine, Florida and Frederica, Georgia Between 1565 and 1783. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Florida, Gainesville. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.
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1983
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1963
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21

Appendix A.
Wren Yard
Identified Elements by Context

UB NoTaxonSymaElementQtyWgt(g)
Context: ST2
654Class Mammalia IILimb bone10.4
Context: ST4
631Class Mammalia IICranium12.2
632Class Mammalia IILimb bone46.1
Context: ST5
779Class OsteichthyesCranium10.1
778Class OsteichthyesScale10.1
776Class Mammalia IILimb bone22.1
777Class Mammalia IIILimb bone20.4
368Sus scrofaRUpper premolar412.2
Context: ST6
788Class Mammalia IILimb bone11.6
Context: ST7
635Class OsteichthyesCranium10.3
633Class MammaliaIndeterminate20.6
431Class Mammalia ILong bone110.8
432Class Mammalia IILong bone14.6
634Class Mammalia IILimb bone1014.2
433Bos taurusIFemur19.2
430Bos taurusRTibia131.1
Context: ST8
786Class Mammalia IILimb bone21.8
Context: ST9
628Class Mammalia ILimb bone113.9
630Class Mammalia IIRib10.9
629Class Mammalia IILimb bone35.2
412Bos taurusLOccipital14.4
22
Context: ST10
619Class Mammalia ILimb bone218.1
620Class Mammalia IILimb bone812.7
Context: ST12
784Class Mammalia IILimb bone10.7
146Bos taurusRCalcaneus15.1
Context: ST13
662Class Mammalia ILimb bone24.2
663Class Mammalia IILimb bone10.6
Context: ST14
624Class OsteichthyesScute41.7
621Class ReptiliaLimb bone41.6
623Class Mammalia IIRib10.8
174Class Mammalia IILong bone13.8
622Class Mammalia IILimb bone97.6
173Sus scrofaLLower canine12.7
171Bos taurusITibia111.4
170Ovis aries/Capra hircusLInnominate17.9
175Ovis aries/Capra hircusIRadius12.5
169Ovis aries/Capra hircusLFemur124.9
172Ovis aries/Capra hircusLTibia19.0
Context: ST15
643Class Mammalia IIRib10.8
642Class Mammalia IILimb bone33.7
413Sus scrofaIMolar11.5
414Bos taurusIFemur118.8
Context: ST16
832Order TestudinesCarapace/plastron10.3
833Class Mammalia IICranium11.1
831Class Mammalia IILimb bone73.3
Context: ST19
457Goose spp.RTibiotarsus12.1
696Class MammaliaIRib16.7
695Class MammaliaILimb bone412.8
699Class Mammalia IICranium22.8
23
698Class Mammalia IIRib96.3
697Class Mammalia IILimb bone2317.8
460Sus scrofaAOccipital15.1
462Sus scrofaLUpper canine12.3
459Sus scrofaLCalcaneus12.2
455Bos taurusAThoracic vertebra115.1
456Bos taurusLMain metacarpal111.0
454Bos taurusLMain metacarpal125.4
458Bos taurusITibia17.5
461Bos taurusLMain metatarsal16.3
Context: ST20
812Class Mammalia ILimb bone14.3
813Class Mammalia IILimb bone1216.7
415Sus scrofaRUpper molar 111.2
416Bos taurusIFemur111.9
Context: ST21
439Class Mammalia IVertebra12.9
653Class Mammalia IICranium10.7
651Class Mammalia IIRib56.3
652Class Mammalia IILimb bone21.7
440Class Mammalia IIIndeterminate11.1
438Bos taurusLRadial carpal111.8
Context: ST23
783Class Mammalia IIIVertebra10.3
Context: ST25
715Class AvesLimb bone10.5
712Class Mammalia IRib34.2
713Class Mammalia IIRib21.3
714Class Mammalia IILimb bone109.1
Context: ST26
649Class Mammalia IIRib10.9
650Class Mammalia IILimb bone34.8
Context: ST29
801Class Mammalia ILimb bone16.2
805Class Mammalia IICranium22.4
804Class Mammalia IIVertebra11.1
24
803Class Mammalia IIRib52.4
802Class Mammalia IILimb bone913.2
445Ovis aries/Capra hircusRAstragalus12.6
446Ovis aries/Capra hircusRAstragalus12.2
447Ovis aries/Capra hircusRAstragalus11.4
Context: ST30
664Class Mammalia IILimb bone11.1
365Sus scrofaLPatella13.4
364cf Bos taurusIRadial carpal17.1
Context: ST31
823Class Mammalia IRib12.7
822Class Mammalia IIRib11.5
824Class Mammalia IILimb bone31.6
336Sus scrofaIMolar11.3
335Sus scrofaRRadius11.2
Context: ST33
639Class Mammalia ILimb bone28.8
641Class Mammalia IICranium12.1
640Class Mammalia IILimb bone45.1
443Sus scrofaRScapula112.8
Context: ST34
757Class Mammalia IRib12.8
756Class Mammalia ILimb bone423.5
760Class Mammalia IIVertebra10.6
759Class Mammalia IIRib75.2
758Class Mammalia IILimb bone56.6
441Bos taurusRRadius121.7
442Ovis aries/Capra hircusALumbar vertebra14.0
Context: ST35
817Class Mammalia IRib24.0
818Class Mammalia IILimb bone45.4
Context: ST36
605Order TestudinesCarapace/plastron25.5
602Class MammaliaIndeterminate81.9
210Class Mammalia IMandible12.0
212Class Mammalia IVertebra13.5
25
604Class Mammalia IRib718.6
601Class Mammalia ILimb bone211.9
603Class Mammalia IICranium1614.6
209Class Mammalia IIMandible12.6
606Class Mammalia IIVertebra46.3
211Class Mammalia IIVertebra11.0
607Class Mammalia IIRib2929.9
216Class Mammalia IILong bone10.6
609Class Mammalia IILimb bone7488.4
214Class Mammalia IIIndeterminate11.1
608Class Mammalia IIIRib21.4
215Sus scrofaRTemporal15.9
213Sus scrofaLPterygoid14.8
176Sus scrofaLMandible14.8
194Sus scrofaLMandible16.1
217Sus scrofaRMandible111.7
203Sus scrofaRLower incisor 310.6
204Sus scrofaRLower canine16.3
202Sus scrofaLUpper premolar 211.2
207Sus scrofaRLower premolar 412.3
199Sus scrofaRLower premolar 411.0
201Sus scrofaRLower premolar 410.9
200Sus scrofaRLower premolar 410.9
198Sus scrofaRLower premolar 411.1
206Sus scrofaRLower molar 113.2
205Sus scrofaLLower molar 215.7
208Sus scrofaRLower molar 315.8
195Sus scrofaRScapula12.8
184Sus scrofaLUlna118.9
179Sus scrofaRTibia124.6
192Bos taurusALumbar vertebra15.9
182Bos taurusIRib17.2
196Bos taurusIRib112.1
188Bos taurusIRib13.0
180Bos taurusIRib14.5
197cf Bos taurusIRib12.7
178Bos taurusRInnominate110.3
183Bos taurusRScapula195.8
185Bos taurusIHumerus116.9
181Bos taurusLUlna125.7
190Bos taurusRRadius115.0
187Bos taurusLTibia16.3
191Bos taurusLAstragalus17.9
193Bos taurusLAstragalus18.5
189cf Ovis aries/Capra hircusIMaxilla12.3
26
186Ovis aries/Capra hircusIMaxilla15.4
177Ovis aries/Capra hircusLTibia15.4
Context: ST37
785Class Mammalia IILimb bone24.1
Context: ST38
814Class Mammalia IRib14.0
815Class Mammalia IIRib21.1
816Class Mammalia IILimb bone812.5
Context: ST39
660Class Mammalia IICranium10.3
661Class Mammalia IILimb bone21.1
Context: ST41
453Class OsteichthyesScale10.1
709Class AvesLimb bone10.2
706Class MammaliaIndeterminate93.3
708Class Mammalia IICranium10.7
707Class Mammalia IILimb bone1413.8
448Sus scrofaIMandible18.6
449Sus scrofaRMandible111.6
452Sus scrofaRUpper canine13.4
451Sus scrofaRInnominate13.3
450Bos taurusLAstragalus158.9
Context: ST42
688Class AvesCranium10.1
684Class Mammalia IRib11.8
687Class Mammalia IICranium20.9
685Class Mammalia IIVertebra21.8
686Class Mammalia IIRib42.0
689Class Mammalia IILimb bone4245.3
147Sus scrofaLInnominate12.5
143Bos taurusACervical vertebra15.2
142Bos taurusRInnominate119.1
141Bos taurusRFemur111.1
140Bos taurusITibia121.1
145Ovis aries/Capra hircusLInnominate13.7
144Ovis aries/Capra hircusLTibia14.3
27
Context: ST44
429Family CorvidaeLUlna10.2
152Class Mammalia IVertebra14.6
691Class MammaliaIRib15.8
425Class Mammalia ILong bone14.0
690Class Mammalia ILimb bone110.1
694Class Mammalia IICranium10.3
693Class Mammalia IIRib21.1
692Class Mammalia IILimb bone1016.2
149Sus scrofaRLower incisor 211.7
148Sus scrofaLLower canine12.6
151Sus scrofaLHumerus115.8
150Sus scrofaLHumerus12.9
426Bos taurusRRib16.4
153Bos taurusLFused tarsal c + 4125.0
428Bos taurus (Calf)IMain metatarsal18.8
427Ovis aries/Capra hircusLFemur17.3
Context: F4
830Class Mammalia ILimb bone13.6
828Class Mammalia IICranium34.3
829Class Mammalia IIVertebra11.0
Context: F5
636Class MammaliaIndeterminate30.5
637Class Mammalia ILimb bone210.2
435Class Mammalia IIVertebra11.4
638Class Mammalia IILimb bone910.5
Context: F7
790Class Mammalia IIRib10.8
791Class Mammalia IILimb bone10.1
66Sus scrofaRFemur123.2
Context: F8
644Class MammaliaIndeterminate41.0
645Class Mammalia IILimb bone79.1
Context: F10
703Class Mammalia IRib33.6
704Class Mammalia IIRib20.4
28
705Class Mammalia IILimb bone1916.7
40Canis familiarisLUpper canine12.6
43Sus ScrofaRUpper molar 115.1
39Sus ScrofaLRadius15.5
42Bos taurusACervical vertebra16.1
41Bos taurusIUlna14.8
38Bos taurusLUlna187.6
Context: F12
168Class Mammalia IVertebra12.2
809Class Mammalia IRib29.6
810Class Mammalia IIRib23.5
165Class Mammalia IIFlat bone12.2
811Class Mammalia IILimb bone1217.1
167Sus scrofaLLower incisor 110.9
166Sus scrofaRLower canine11.5
164Sus scrofaALumbar vertebra12.7
Context: F14
718Class Mammalia IIRib10.8
717Class Mammalia IILimb bone39.3
334Bos taurus (Calf)RTibia17.3
Context: F15
716Class Mammalia IILimb bone716.0
163Bos taurusIFemur113.7
Context: F18
827Class Mammalia IILimb bone12.3
1Bos taurus (Calf)LLower premolar 415.1
Context: F20
646Class Mammalia IILimb bone10.5
Context: F21
789Class Mammalia IILimb bone43.0
422Sus scrofaLLower canine10.7
423Bos taurusLLower incisor 111.8
424Ovis aries/Capra hircusRUpper premolar 311.8
29
Context: F22
798Class Mammalia IRib410.4
797Class Mammalia IILimb bone41.1
Context: TU1I
794Class Mammalia ILimb bone15.9
796Class Mammalia IIRib41.7
795Class Mammalia IILimb bone1610.7
Context: TU1II
775Class Aves/Mammalia IIILimb bone10.4
773Class Mammalia ICranium10.5
774Class Mammalia IICranium11.6
772Class Mammalia IIRib10.9
771Class Mammalia IILimb bone2316.8
436cf Sylvilagus floridanus IMetapodial10.1
437Sus scrofaRLower incisor 310.7
Context: TU1III
729Class OsteichthyesSpine10.2
730Order TestudinesCarapace/plastron10.6
728Class Aves/Mammalia IIILimb bone61.5
721Class MammaliaIndeterminate207.5
722Class Mammalia ICranium27.2
92Class Mammalia IVertebra12.4
724Class Mammalia IRib1012.4
95Class Mammalia ILong bone14.9
94Class Mammalia ILong bone15.3
91Class Mammalia ILong bone15.1
723Class Mammalia ILimb bone933.5
726Class Mammalia IICranium55.3
727Class Mammalia IIVertebra11.1
725Class Mammalia IIRib65.1
54Class Mammalia IIFlat bone11.8
78Class Mammalia IILong bone15.0
97Class Mammalia IILong bone10.9
731Class Mammalia IILimb bone132129.5
75Class Mammalia IIIndeterminate10.3
81Order Artiodactyla IALumbar vertebra12.5
68Sus scrofaRMaxilla12.8
93Sus scrofaAOccipital11.9
70Sus scrofaRUpper premolar 411.6
71Sus scrofaRLower premolar 311.3
30
76Sus scrofa IMolar10.5
74Sus scrofa IMolar10.3
69Sus scrofaRUpper molar 212.2
83cf Sus scrofa IScapula12.1
88Sus scrofaRCalcaneus16.7
90Sus scrofaLMetatarsal IV19.1
96Sus scrofa IMetapodial12.0
82Bos taurusRMandible14.8
73Bos taurusLUpper premolar 217.4
77Bos taurusACervical vertebra18.1
79Bos taurusAThoracic vertebra14.4
89Bos taurus IScapula15.4
87Bos taurus IHumerus119.7
86Bos taurusRHumerus178.1
80Bos taurusRFused carpal 2 + 318.6
86Ovis aries/Capra hircusAOccipital13.2
72Ovis aries/Capra hircusIMolar11.0
Context: TU1IV
683Class OsteichthyesCranium31.4
681Class AvesLimb bone20.5
675Class MammaliaIndeterminate153.6
463Class Mammalia ICranium14.2
677Class Mammalia IRib57.3
676Class Mammalia ILimb bone425.6
682Class Mammalia IICranium62.0
679Class Mammalia IIVertebra22.3
678Class Mammalia IIRib95.6
464Class Mammalia IILong bone11.6
680Class Mammalia IILimb bone9170.9
480Sus scrofaRLower incisor 210.8
476Sus scrofaRUpper premolar 210.8
473Sus scrofaRUpper premolar 311.0
477Sus scrofaRUpper premolar 310.4
474Sus scrofaIMolar10.9
475Sus scrofaIMolar11.1
465Sus scrofaLHumerus12.6
466Sus scrofaRFibula11.4
471Sus scrofaLCalcaneus14.5
467Bos taurusIMandible16.6
470Bos taurusRMandible114.9
478Bos taurusRLower incisor11 2.9
469Bos taurusACervical vertebra132.7
472Bos taurusAThoracic vertebra18.4
468Bos taurusRScapula1124.2
479Ovis aries/Capra hircusRLower molar 311.2
31
Context: TU1V
821Class Mammalia IIVertebra10.9
820Class Mammalia IILimb bone139.1
Context: TU1Va
420Class Mammalia IIVertebra10.7
799Class Mammalia IIRib41.7
648Class Mammalia IILimb bone42.0
800Class Mammalia IILimb bone1310.8
419Sus scrofaRThird carpal11.6
418Sus scrofaIFibula10.7
417Bos taurusIFirst phalanx130.8
Context: TU2I
787Class Mammalia IILimb bone20.7
Context: TU2II
826Class Mammalia IIRib10.3
825Class Mammalia IILimb bone31.6
139Sus scrofaRLower molar 3111.8
Context: TU2III
674 Class AvesLimb bone41.1
289 Meleagris gallopavoIFirst phalanx10.3
665 Class MammaliaIndeterminate255.2
233 Class Mammalia ICranium13.1
668 Class Mammalia IVertebra13.9
670 Class Mammalia IVertebra613.4
667 Class Mammalia IRib2856.5
246 Class Mammalia ILong bone16.0
666 Class Mammalia ILimb bone1361.8
672 Class Mammalia IICranium86.4
242 Class Mammalia IIMandible11.3
671 Class Mammalia IIVertebra74.4
669 Class Mammalia IIRib4441.7
251 Class Mammalia IILong bone12.4
673 Class Mammalia IILimb bone155190.4
243 Sus scrofaLMaxilla12.4
234 Sus scrofaLMandible12.8
330 Sus scrofaRUpper incisor 212.0
326 Sus scrofaRUpper incisor 212.4
299 Sus scrofaLLower incisor 111.2
32
295Sus scrofaLLower incisor 111.4
292Sus scrofaLLower incisor 111.3
283Sus scrofaLLower incisor 111.4
304Sus scrofaLLower incisor 112.0
290Sus scrofaRLower incisor 112.3
300Sus scrofaRLower incisor 111.2
291Sus scrofaRLower incisor 111.7
303Sus scrofaRLower incisor 110.9
285Sus scrofaRLower incisor 110.8
286Sus scrofaILower incisor 210.5
277Sus scrofaLLower incisor 211.1
282Sus scrofaLLower incisor 211.3
301Sus scrofaLLower incisor 210.9
302Sus scrofaLLower incisor 211.2
293Sus scrofaLLower incisor 211.5
288Sus scrofaLLower incisor 210.8
297Sus scrofaRLower incisor 211.2
298Sus scrofaRLower incisor 211.5
296Sus scrofaRLower incisor 211.7
284Sus scrofaRLower incisor 210.8
308Sus scrofaLLower incisor 310.6
278Sus scrofaILower canine11.2
287Sus scrofaILower canine10.5
276Sus scrofaILower canine11.0
279Sus scrofaLLower canine12.5
281Sus scrofaRLower canine11.5
333Sus scrofaRLower canine13.5
294Sus scrofaRLower canine11.3
307Sus scrofaRUpper premolar 110.4
309Sus scrofaRUpper premolar 110.3
305Sus scrofaRUpper premolar 210.5
318Sus scrofaLUpper premolar 411.2
315Sus scrofaLUpper premolar 411.2
310Sus scrofaLLower premolar 310.8
328Sus scrofaLLower premolar 412.4
311Sus scrofaLLower premolar 411.3
306Sus scrofaIMolar10.9
329Sus scrofaLUpper molar 113.7
323Sus scrofaRUpper molar 113.9
324Sus scrofaLUpper molar 214.4
319Sus scrofaLUpper molar 212.7
314Sus scrofaLUpper molar 211.7
317Sus scrofaRUpper molar 211.6
321Sus scrofaRUpper molar 211.7
313Sus scrofaRUpper molar 211.5
327Sus scrofaLUpper molar 319.9
33
320Sus scrofaLLower molar 212.2
325Sus scrofaLLower molar 316.6
322Sus scrofaRLower molar 315.4
312Sus scrofaRLower molar 313.1
316Sus scrofaRLower molar 313.3
228Sus scrofaAAtlas16.6
230Sus scrofaALumbar vertebra12.3
269Bos taurusLRib113.1
256Sus scrofaLScapula110.5
231Sus scrofaLScapula13.2
254Sus scrofaRScapula17.4
262Sus scrofaRRadius13.2
254Sus scrofaRTibia111.0
223Sus scrofaIFibula11.0
244Sus scrofaLFibula11.4
236Sus scrofaRAstragalus14.2
272Sus scrofaIMetapodial11.3
275Sus scrofaIMetapodial11.4
273Sus scrofaIFirst phalanx10.5
274Sus scrofaISecond phalanx11.0
240Sus scrofaIThird phalanx11.5
219Bos taurusACervical vertebra112.4
238Bos taurusACervical vertebra13.3
232Bos taurusAThoracic vertebra16.7
270Bos taurusALumbar vertebra19.6
224Bos taurusALumbar vertebra110.3
245Bos taurusALumbar vertebra14.7
257Bos taurusIRib15.3
331Bos taurusIRib16.5
248Bos taurusLRib122.2
243Bos taurusRRib112.4
221Bos taurusRRib113.9
263Bos taurusIInnominate18.4
260Bos taurusLHumerus110.9
265Bos taurusLUlna14.5
255Bos taurusLRadius165.8
258Bos taurusLRadius131.6
227Bos taurusLUlnar carpal111.0
275Bos taurusRIntermediate carpal16.3
253Bos taurusIFemur138.2
259Bos taurusIFemur112.3
332Bos taurusIFemur120.6
261Bos taurusIFemur117.1
220Bos taurusIFemur17.7
268Bos taurusLFemur122.0
252Bos taurusITibia117.6
34
247Bos taurusITibia111.4
218Bos taurusRTibia126.3
271Bos taurusRPatella119.1
266Bos taurusRCalcaneus182.1
225Bos taurusLAstragalus17.6
222Bos taurusRAstragalus17.3
241Ovis aries/Capra hircusLScapula12.5
229Ovis aries/Capra hircusLUlna13.1
267Ovis aries/Capra hircusRRadius117.7
239Ovis aries/Capra hircusRRadius13.3
250Ovis aries/Capra hircusLCalcaneus17.3
235Ovis aries/Capra hircusLAstragalus13.2
237Ovis aries/Capra hircusRAstragalus17.0
Context: TU2IV
752Class Mammalia ILimb bone38.0
755Class Mammalia IIVertebra35.0
754Class Mammalia IIRib44.9
407Class Mammalia IILong bone11.2
753Class Mammalia IILimb bone3739.0
411Sus scrofaLLower incisor 111.2
410Sus scrofaLLower incisor 211.3
406Sus scrofaAThoracic vertebra13.8
399Sus scrofaLUlna10.6
403Sus scrofaRUlna116.3
402Sus scrofaRMetatarsal III14.4
401Sus scrofaIThird phalanx12.6
409Bos taurusALumbar vertebra11.8
405Bos taurusALumbar vertebra15.7
404Bos taurusLInnominate128.9
408Bos taurus (Calf)IFemur14.7
400Ovis aries/Capra hircusRInnominate15.3
Context: TU2V
701Class Mammalia IRib24.1
700Class Mammalia ILimb bone28.0
702Class Mammalia IILimb bone1833.0
361Order Artiodactyla IALumbar vertebra11.6
357Sus scrofaLHumerus128.1
356Bos taurusACervical vertebra127.4
355Bos taurusAThoracic vertebra19.5
359Bos taurusAThoracic vertebra17.3
358Bos taurusRInnominate115.5
360Ovis aries/Capra hircusRInnominate14.2
35
Context: TU3I
647Class Mammalia IILimb bone11.3
Context: TU3II
339Class Mammalia ILong bone19.0
819Class Mammalia IILimb bone67.8
342Sus scrofaLLower incisor 211.8
343Sus scrofaRUpper molar 114.3
337Sus scrofaRFemur14.2
340Sus scrofaITibia13.2
341Bos taurusRPterygoid14.6
338Bos taurusASacrum14.8
Context: TU3III
110Acipenser spp.IScute13.8
610Class MammaliaIndeterminate20.3
108Class Mammalia ICranium12.3
613Class Mammalia IRib27.6
113Class Mammalia ILong bone13.5
611Class Mammalia IICranium55.3
612Class Mammalia IIRib129.0
100Class Mammalia IILong bone13.7
614Class Mammalia IILimb bone4541.0
125Ondatra zibethicaRFemur12.4
98Order Artiodactyla I ALumbar vertebra10.4
127Order Artiodactyla IALumbar vertebra10.4
124Sus scrofaLTemporal17.6
104Sus scrofaRLower incisor 310.6
99Sus scrofaLUpper premolar 311.6
106Sus scrofaRUpper molar 215.9
105Sus scrofaLLower molar 112.0
112Sus scrofaALumbar vertebra14.1
109Sus scrofaRScapula115.1
119Sus scrofaRScapula19.5
103Sus scrofaLHumerus14.5
102Sus scrofaLHumerus12.5
122Sus scrofaRHumerus135.9
114Sus scrofaRRadius18.4
137Sus scrofaRFemur15.1
135Bos taurusRPremaxilla15.1
107Bos taurusRBulla tympanica13.0
133Bos taurusALumbar vertebra11.2
111Bos taurusIRib16.8
36
117Bos taurusIRib15.4
131Bos taurusLRib19.5
128Bos taurusRRib114.8
132Bos taurusLHumerus127.4
129Bos taurusLHumerus126.7
120Bos taurusLHumerus116.9
126Bos taurusIRadius123.4
130Bos taurusRFemur158.8
121Bos taurusRFemur154.6
116Ovis aries/Capra hircusIParietal12.1
136Ovis aries/Capra hircusRInnominate15.4
115Ovis aries/Capra hircusRInnominate15.1
134Ovis aries/Capra hircusLHumerus110.1
123Ovis aries/Capra hircusLFemur116.5
101Ovis aries/Capra hircusLTibia15.6
138Ovis aries/Capra hircusLTibia15.8
118Ovis aries/Capra hircusRCalcaneus13.9
Context: TU3IV
751Class OsteichthyesSpine10.3
746Class MammaliaIndeterminate174.9
747Class Mammalia IRib68.8
750Class Mammalia IICranium53.9
749Class Mammalia IIVertebra22.2
501Class Mammalia IIVertebra11.7
500Class Mammalia IIVertebra10.6
505Class Mammalia IIVertebra11.1
748Class Mammalia IIRib64.0
745Class Mammalia IILimb bone4962.7
494Order Artiodactyla IALumbar vertebra10.2
496Sus scrofaLUpper incisor 212.2
497Sus scrofaILower canine10.7
499Sus scrofaLLower canine13.6
495Sus scrofaRLower premolar210.2
416Sus scrofaRLower molar 216.4
490Sus scrofaLScapula112.3
504Sus scrofaRCalcaneus13.0
503Sus scrofaLMetatarsal IV13.8
491Bos taurusAThoracic vertebra19.0
488Bos taurusALumbar vertebra18.7
492Bos taurusALumbar vertebra16.1
502Bos taurusALumbar vertebra13.8
487Bos taurusLRib111.4
485Bos taurusRScapula118.9
486Bos taurusRUlna112.6
489Bos taurusLRadius112.9
37
493Bos taurusLUlnar carpal110.5
484Bos taurusLTibia115.6
Context: TU3V
720Class Mammalia IICranium21.9
345Class Mammalia IIVertebra10.6
352Class Mammalia IILong bone14.3
719Class Mammalia IILimb bone1814.0
351Bos taurusAThoracic vertebra16.6
348Bos taurusALumbar vertebra119.4
353Bos taurusALumbar vertebra15.6
346Bos taurusLHumerus118.5
347Bos taurusLTibia161.4
350Bos taurusIThird phalanx117.9
349Bos taurus (Calf)IMain metatarsal112.4
354Ovis aries/Capra hircusLScapula12.0
Context: TU4II
781Class Mammalia IICranium10.4
780Class Mammalia IILimb bone11.1
782Class Mammalia IILimb bone11.1
Context: TU4IV
67Sus scrofaIMolar10.9
Context: TU5II
767Class MammaliaILimb bone17.6
770Class Mammalia IICranium22.2
769Class Mammalia IIRib10.4
768Class Mammalia IILimb bone35.0
366Sus scrofaRLower incisor 211.9
367Sus scrofaIPremolar10.4
Context: TU5III
835Class Mammalia IIRib10.5
834Class Mammalia IILimb bone31.4
160Sus scrofaILower canine10.7
159Sus scrofaILower canine10.8
162Sus scrofaLLower canine11.2
156Sus scrofaRLower canine12.5
161Sus scrofaRLower premolar 211.4
158Sus scrofaRUpper molar 215.0
155Bos taurusACervical vertebra15.8
38
157Bos taurusALumbar vertebra13.7
154Bos taurusALumbar vertebra111.6
Context: TU5IV
766Class AvesLimb bone20.4
33Class Mammalia IMandible13.9
762Class Mammalia IRib515.3
24Class Mammalia ILong bone18.7
761Class Mammalia ILimb bone526.9
765Class Mammalia IICranium78.0
764Class Mammalia IIRib135.9
763Class Mammalia IILimb bone5960.1
30Order Artiodactyla IALumbar vertebra10.5
20Sus scrofaLUpper incisor 212.3
19Sus scrofaLLower canine13.0
16Sus scrofaIMolar10.5
22Sus scrofaLUpper molar 111.7
21Sus scrofaRUpper molar 116.8
29Sus scrofaRUlna18.6
37Sus scrofaIMetapodial10.7
31Bos taurusRMandible128.2
25Bos taurusAAtlas164.9
34Bos taurusAAxis123.5
32Bos taurusALumbar vertebra13.4
35Bos taurusALumbar vertebra12.1
23Bos taurusLRadius1151.8
27Bos taurusLMain metacarpal152.9
26Bos taurusIFemur122.7
17Bos taurus (Calf)RLower incisor 310.5
15Bos taurus (Calf)IMolar10.6
25Ovis aries/Capra hircusLScapula16.7
36Ovis aries/Capra hircusRScapula11.5
Context: TU5V
793Class Mammalia IIRib31.6
792Class Mammalia IILimb bone32.5
344Bos taurusLMandible140.9
Context: TU5VI
657Class Mammalia IICranium42.0
658Class Mammalia IIRib11.0
659Class Mammalia IILimb bone21.2
362Sus scrofaRParietal14.4
363Sus scrofaLUpper incisor 211.7
39
Context: TU6III
735Class AvesLimb bone42.4
732Class MammaliaIndeterminate287.5
734Class Mammalia ICranium1333.8
733Class Mammalia ILimb bone1048.8
738Class Mammalia IIVertebra11.6
736Class Mammalia IIRib84.2
737Class Mammalia IILimb bone10689.1
44Sus scrofaRUpper molar 111.9
64Sus scrofaIFibula10.7
62Sus scrofaRAstragalus14.4
63Bos taurusRPterygoid12.5
51Bos taurusLLower incisor 112.0
49Bos taurusRLower incisor 111.7
45Bos taurusRLower premolar 4112.9
50Bos taurusIMolar11.6
46Bos taurusLUpper molar 2130.9
48Bos taurusRLower molar 318.6
55Bos taurusAThoracic vertebra110.7
56Bos taurusLRib17.9
53Bos taurusLRib19.6
57Bos taurusLRib13.2
52Bos taurusRRadius170.7
61Bos taurusLFused carpal 2 + 317.9
59Bos taurusIFemur17.2
54Bos taurusITibia118.0
60Bos taurusLCalcaneus111.0
65Bos taurusIProximal sesamoid11.8
58Ovis aries/Capra hircusLMandible14.1
47Ovis aries/Capra hircusLLower molar 215.4
Context: TU6IV
710Class Mammalia IIRib46.2
711Class Mammalia IILimb bone66.4
421Bos taurusLRib19.6
18Ovis aries/Capra hircusLUpper molar 210.8
Context: TU7III
387Class AvesFlat bone10.1
741Class Mammalia ICranium11.8
386Class Mammalia IVertebra12.7
740Class Mammalia IRib22.4
739Class Mammalia ILimb bone933.4
40
742Class Mammalia IIVertebra22.4
743Class Mammalia IIRib42.5
744Class Mammalia IILimb bone5662.2
390Class Mammalia IIIndeterminate10.3
395Sus scrofaRMaxilla118.0
382Sus scrofaLMandible113.2
383Sus scrofaRMandible118.2
376Sus scrofaRMandible12.2
375Sus scrofaRMandible14.5
389Sus scrofaILower incisor 210.8
398Sus scrofaILower canine11.6
374Sus scrofaRInnominate16.2
377Sus scrofaRUlna13.5
373Sus scrofaLFemur110.4
379Sus scrofaRFemur111.0
371cf Bos taurusIMandible15.8
394Bos taurusRUpper molar 1126.3
393Bos taurusRUpper molar 2134.4
392Bos taurusLUpper molar 3123.8
378Bos taurusAAxis150.6
385Bos taurusAhoracic vertebra16.9
381Bos taurusLInnominate142.2
370Bos taurusIHumerus116.3
384Bos taurusIFemur135.0
369Bos taurusITibia111.1
372Bos taurusLTibia142.7
388Ovis aries/Capra hircusIIncisor10.1
391Ovis aries/Capra hircusLLower incisor 110.4
397Ovis aries/Capra hircusRUpper molar 215.5
396Ovis aries/Capra hircusRLower molar 112.9
380Ovis aries/Capra hircusRScapula14.0
Context: TU7IV
627Class ReptiliaLimb bone11.4
626Class Mammalia IIRib31.6
625Class Mammalia IILimb bone1816.7
3Bos taurusACervical vertebra15.6
2Bos taurus (Calf)RHumerus14.4
Context: TU8III
616Class ReptiliaLimb bone31.2
615Class Mammalia ILimb bone13.6
617Class Mammalia IIRib73.8
618Class Mammalia IILimb bone3531.5
13Canis familiaris IRadius13.7
41
9Odocoileus virginianusLCalcaneus111.0
12Bos taurusRMalar12.5
11Bos taurusACervical vertebra13.2
4Bos taurusAThoracic vertebra136.1
5Bos taurusLScapula165.0
10Bos taurusLScapula115.3
7Bos taurusIFemur121.1
6Bos taurusIFirst phalanx125.4
8Ovis aries/Capra hircusRScapula15.0
Context: TU8IV
656Class Mammalia ILimb bone13.4
655Class Mammalia ILimb bone12.6
Context: TU9III
808Class AvesLimb bone10.3
806Class Mammalia ILimb bone212.3
807Class Mammalia IILimb bone1213.3
444Bos taurusLUlna116.1
Context: TU9IV
434Sus scrofaRMetacarpal IV14.1
Context:
0Class OsteichthyesScale10.1
0Class Mammalia IVertebra12.6
0Class Mammalia IIRib20.9
0Class Mammalia IIFlat bone10.5
0Class Mammalia IIIndeterminate11.0
0Sus scrofaRUpper molar 111.9
42
Appendix B.
Age Distribution, 18th Century Contexts
Domestic Pig (Sus scrofa)
Bone and EpiphysisFusedNot Fused
Age of Fusion — 0 to 12 Months
Scapula00
Innominate10
Humerus — distal10
Radius — proximal00
Second phalange — proximal00
20
Percent of Age Range100.0%0.0%
Age of Fusion — 12 to 24 Months
Metacarpal00
First phalange — proximal00
Tibia — distal00
00
Percent of Age Range0.0%0.0%
Age of Fusion — 24 to 36 Months
Calcaneus00
Metatarsal00
Fibula — distal00
00
Percent of Age Range0.0%0.0%
Age of Fusion — 36 to 42 Months
Humerus — proximal00
Radius — distal00
Ulna — proximal01
Ulna — distal00
Femur — proximal00
Femur — distal00
Tibia — proximal00
Fibula — proximal00
01
Percent of Age Range0.0%100.0%

N=3; Source of Fusion Ages: Silver 1969; Chaplin 1970; Maltby 1979.

43
Appendix B.
Age Distribution, 19th Century Contexts
Domestic Pig (Sus scrofa)
Bone and EpiphysisFusedNot Fused
Age of Fusion — 0 to 12 Months
Scapula20
Innominate00
Humerus — distal10
Radius — proximal10
Second phalange — proximal01
41
Percent of Age Range80.0%20.0%
Age of Fusion — 12 to 24 Months
Metacarpal00
First phalange — proximal00
Tibia — distal00
00
Percent of Age Range0.0%0.0%
Age of Fusion — 24 to 36 Months
Calcaneus01
Metatarsal00
Fibula — distal00
01
Percent of Age Range0.0%100.0%
Age of Fusion — 36 to 42 Months
Humerus — proximal01
Radius — distal00
Ulna — proximal00
Ulna — distal00
Femur — proximal00
Femur — distal00
Tibia — proximal00
Fibula — proximal00
01
Percent of Age Range0.0%100.0%

N=7; Source of Fusion Ages: Silver 1969; Chaplin 1970; Maltby 1979.

44
Appendix B.
Age Distribution, 18th Century Contexts
Domestic Cow (Bos taurus)
Bone and EpiphysisFusedNot Fused
Age of Fusion — 0 to 12 Months
Scapula10
Innominate20
30
Percent of Age Range100.0%0.0%
Age of Fusion — 12 to 24 Months
Humerus — distal01
Radius — proximal00
First phalange — proximal00
Second phalange — proximal00
01
Percent of Age Range0.0%100.0%
Age of Fusion — 24 to 36 Months
Metacarpal00
Tibia — distal20
Metatarsal00
Metapodial00
20
Percent of Age Range100.0%0.0%
Age of Fusion — 36 to 48 Months
Humerus — proximal00
Ulna — proximal00
Ulna — distal00
Radius — distal00
Femur — proximal00
Femur — distal00
Tibia — proximal00
Calcaneus01
01
Percent of Age Range0.0%100.0%

N=7; Source of Fusion Ages: Silver 1969; Chaplin 1970; Maltby 1979.

45
Appendix B.
Age Distribution, 19th Century Contexts
Domestic Cow (Bos taurus)
Bone and EpiphysisFusedNot Fused
Age of Fusion — 0 to 12 Months
Scapula10
Innominate00
10
Percent of Age Range100.0%0.0%
Age of Fusion — 12 to 24 Months
Humerus — distal10
Radius — proximal20
First phalange — proximal00
Second phalange — proximal00
30
Percent of Age Range100.0%0.0%
Age of Fusion — 24 to 36 Months
Metacarpal01
Tibia — distal10
Metatarsal00
Metapodial00
11
Percent of Age Range50.0%50.0%
Age of Fusion — 36 to 48 Months
Humerus — proximal10
Ulna — proximal01
Ulna — distal00
Radius — distal00
Femur — proximal10
Femur — distal00
Tibia — proximal00
Calcaneus10
31
Percent of Age Range75.0%25.0%

N=10; Source of Fusion Ages: Silver 1969; Chaplin 1970; Maltby 1979.

46
Appendix B.
Age Distribution, 20th Century Contexts
Domestic Cow (Bos taurus)
Bone and EpiphysisFusedNot Fused
Age of Fusion — 0 to 12 Months
Scapula00
Innominate00
00
Percent of Age Range0.0%0.0%
Age of Fusion — 12 to 24 Months
Humerus — distal00
Radius — proximal00
First phalange — proximal00
Second phalange — proximal00
00
Percent of Age Range0.0%0.0%
Age of Fusion — 24 to 36 Months
Metacarpal00
Tibia — distal01
Metatarsal00
Metapodial00
01
Percent of Age Range0.0%100.0%
Age of Fusion — 36 to 48 Months
Humerus — proximal00
Ulna — proximal00
Ulna — distal00
Radius — distal00
Femur — proximal00
Femur — distal00
Tibia — proximal00
Calcaneus 00
00
Percent of Age Range0.0%0.0%

N=1; Source of Fusion Ages: Silver 1969; Chaplin 1970; Maltby 1979.

47
Appendix B.
Age Distribution, 18th Century Contexts
Domestic Sheep/Goat (Ovis aries/Capra hircus)
Bone and EpiphysisFusedNot Fused
Age of Fusion — 6 to 10 Months
Scapula10
Innominate00
Humerus — distal00
Radius — proximal00
10
Percent of Age Range100.0%0.0%
Age of Fusion — 12 to 36 Months
Ulna — proximal00
Ulna — distal00
Metacarpal00
Femur — proximal00
Tibia — distal00
Metatarsal00
Metapodial00
Calcaneus00
First phalange — proximal00
Second phalange — proximal00
00
Percent of Age Range0.0%0.0%
Age of Fusion — 36 to 42 Months
Humerus — proximal00
Radius — distal00
Femur — distal00
Tibia — proximal00
00
Percent of Age Range0.0%0.0%

N=1; Source of Fusion Ages: Silver 1969; Chaplin 1970; Maltby 1979.

48
Appendix B.
Age Distribution, 19th Century Contexts
Domestic Sheep/Goat (Ovis aries/Capra hircus)
Bone and EpiphysisFusedNot Fused
Age of Fusion — 6 to 10 Months
Scapula20
Innominate10
Humerus — distal10
Radius — proximal00
40
Percent of Age Range100.0%0.0%
Age of Fusion — 12 to 36 Months
Ulna — proximal00
Ulna — distal00
Metacarpal00
Femur — proximal00
Tibia — distal10
Metatarsal00
Metapodial00
Calcaneus02
First phalange — proximal00
Second phalange — proximal00
12
Percent of Age Range33.3%66.7%
Age of Fusion — 36 to 42 Months
Humerus — proximal00
Radius — distal02
Femur — distal10
Tibia — proximal00
12
Percent of Age Range33.3%66.7%

N=10; Source of Fusion Ages: Silver 1969; Chaplin 1970; Maltby 1979.

Footnotes

^a Symmetry (side): A=axial, L=left, R=right, I=indeterminate.